Excerpt from the National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement -- February 6-8, 1984

" Lack of risk has been assumed because no adverse effects have been demonstrated clearly in humans. However, other evidence dictates that a hypothetical risk must be presumed with ultrasound. Like-wise, the efficacy of many uses of ultrasound in improving the management and outcome of pregnancy also has been assumed rather than demonstrated, especially its value as a routine screening procedure. "

WHAT TYPES OF ULTRASOUND SCANNING ARE CURRENTLY USED IN OBSTETRIC PRACTICE? HOW EXTENSIVE IS THIS USE? WHAT IS KNOWN ABOUT THE DOSE/EXPOSURE TO THE FETUS AND THE MOTHER FROM EACH TYPE?

On the basis of the collective experience of members of the panel, the material presented, and the literature review that was conducted, we conclude that in obstetric practice in the United States, use of diagnostic ultrasound imaging has an expanding role, and its use is becoming widespread. Information on the extent of use of diagnostic ultrasound in pregnancy was available from single institutions and states, marketing studies, the office survey conducted by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, and the 1980 National Natality Survey. These data lead to estimates of the percentage of pregnant women exposed to at least one ultrasound examination ranging from a low of 15 percent to a high of 40 percent. There is reason to believe that all of these data sources seriously underestimate the true extent of exposure to ultrasound since they do not necessarily include exposure via Doppler devices, including those used to listen to fetal heart tones and in antepartum and intrapartum fetal heart rate monitoring.
Exposure to imaging devices in the recent past has been to static scanners, real-time equipment of the linear array type, and mechanical sector scanners. The quantity used most often to report instrumentation output is intensity. Typical time average value ranges of intensity are 0.1-60 mW/cm^2 (spatial average, temporal average intensity) and 1-200 mW/cm^2 (spatial peak, temporal average intensity). The spatial peak, pulse average intensity typically ranges from 1-200 W/cm^2 for such pulsed ultrasound equipment.
The time average intensities of the typical obstetrical Doppler devices used to listen to the fetal heart and for fetal heart rate monitoring in the antepartum and intrapartum period are within the same range as for pulsed equipment. These systems operate in the continuous wave mode, viz, 0.2-20 mW/cm^2 (spatial average, temporal average intensity) and 0.6-80 mW/cm^2 (spatial peak, temporal average intensity). As new technologies and applications evolve, for example, measurement of blood flow using pulsed Doppler, exposure levels may be substantially higher.
Manufacturers of ultrasound equipment introduced into U.S. commerce are required to report outputs to the FDA. We recommend that these quantities be measured and reported to the user in a form consistent with the requirements of the AIUM/NEMA Safety Standard for Diagnostic Ultrasound Equipment.
Dose is a quantitative measure of an agent that is given or imparted and combines quantities such as intensity and exposure time. No dose quantity has been identified for ultrasound. Variation in tissue properties between individuals as well as scanning conditions influence dose in an unpredictable way. For all practical purposes, fetal dose cannot be quantitated precisely. For this reason, there are no data on the dose to either the mother or the fetus in the clinical setting. Documentation of dwell time and type of machine and transducer used would begin to address this problem. It is recommended that at least this specific exposure information be recorded for each examination. Thus, it is important that each exposure to ultrasound by all Doppler and imaging devices be recorded.

WHAT ARE THE THEORETICAL RISKS OF ULTRASOUND TO THE FETUS AND THE MOTHER? WHAT EVIDENCE EXISTS FROM ANIMAL, TISSUE CULTURE, AND HUMAN STUDIES ON THE ACTUAL EXTENT OF THE RISK?

The panel conducted an extensive review of the primary literature on this subject and of reports by the Bureau of Radiological Health (1976), Food and Drug Administration (1982), World Health Organization (1982), and the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (1984).
A number of epidemiological studies tend to support the safety of diagnostic ultrasound exposure in humans. In particular, in the three randomized clinical trials in which half of the women were exposed routinely to ultrasound, there was no association of routine ultrasound exposure with birth weight. In the two studies that addressed the subject, no association of ultrasound exposure with hearing loss was observed. On the other hand, many of the studies reporting on the safety of diagnostic ultrasound in humans were considered inadequate to address many other important issues because of technical problems in conducting such research.
Some of the more than 35 published animal studies suggest that in utero ultrasound exposure can affect prenatal growth. When teratological effects have been found, energies capable of causing significant hyperthermia have usually existed.
A number of biological effects have been observed following ultrasound exposure in various experimental systems. These include reduction in immune response, change in sister chromatid exchange frequencies, cell death, change in cell membrane functions, degradation of macromolecules, free radical formation, and reduced cell reproductive potential. It should be noted that (a) some of the studies employed energy levels greater than would be expected to exist in clinical use; (b) in vitro exposure conditions to ultrasound used in many of the experiments are hard to place in perspective for risk assessment; (c) some of the observations, for example, sister chromatid exchange frequency changes and induction of chromosomal abnormalities, have not been reproducible, tending to refute the original findings. Nevertheless, some of the reported effects cannot be ignored or overlooked and deserve further study as outlined in our answer to Question 5. The existence of these studies is one of the factors that contributed to our decision that routine ultrasound screening cannot be recommended at this time.

BASED ON THE AVAILABLE EVIDENCE, WHAT ARE THE APPROPRIATE INDICATIONS FOR, AND THE LIMITATIONS ON, USE OF ULTRASOUND IN OBSTETRICS TODAY?

From the body of information reviewed, taking into account the available bioeffects literature, data on clinical efficacy, and with concern for psychosocial, economic, and legal/ethical issues, it is the consensus of the panel that ultrasound examination in pregnancy should be performed for a specific medical indication. The data on clinical efficacy and safety do not allow a recommendation for routine screening at this time.
Ultrasound examinations performed solely to satisfy the family's desire to know the fetal sex, to view the fetus, or to obtain a picture of the fetus should be discouraged. In addition, visualization of the fetus solely for educational or commercial demonstrations without medical benefit to the patient should not be performed.
Prior to an ultrasound examination, patients should be informed of the clinical indication for ultrasound, specific benefit, potential risk, and alternatives, if any. In addition, the patient should be supplied with information about the exposure time and intensity, if requested. A written form may expedite this process in some cases. Patient access to educational materials regarding ultrasound is strongly encouraged. All settings in which these examinations are conducted should assure patients' dignity and privacy.
Given that the full potential of diagnostic ultrasound imaging is critically dependent on examiner training and experience, the panel recommends minimum training requirements and uniform credentialing for all physicians and sonographers performing ultrasound examinations. All health care providers who use this modality should demonstrate adequate knowledge of the basic physical principles of ultrasound, equipment, recordkeeping requirements, indications and safety.

WHAT FURTHER STUDIES ARE NEEDED OF EFFICACY AND SAFETY OF USE OF ULTRASOUND IN PREGNANCY?

It is critical, in view of the existing data and the special considerations affecting fetal and embryonic development, to encourage and support a sustained research effort aimed specifically at test systems that can help provide a better data base for developing reasonable estimates of bioeffects and of risk. In particular, we recommend:
1. The study of fundamental mechanisms leading to bioeffects.
2. Laboratory experiments that focus especially on those cellular processes that are most likely to be affected during embryonic and fetal development.
3. Postnatal studies in animals after in utero exposure to ultrasound.
4. Exploration of interactions between administered ultrasound and such developmentally significant agents as drugs, nutrition, ionizing radiation, hyperthermia, and hypoxia.
5. Development of improved dosimetry.
A long-term followup of infants involved in a randomized clinical trial would help clarify questions about the effect of ultrasound on development in humans, and other epidemiologic studies using a wide variety of methods should be considered. Studies of the psychosocial, ethical, and legal aspects of ultrasound use are also needed.
Further nonexperimental studies that seek to establish the clinical efficacy of ultrasound should address the question of its contribution to reducing morbidity and mortality. Randomized, controlled clinical trials of routine ultrasound screening in pregnancy should be conducted in the United States.